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Russia’s Plans For The Next 26 Years In Space

By Robert Gass, Interspace News, 2006

When most people think of Russia’s space program they inevitably tend to look back instead of forward. In their eyes Russia is past its prime. True, in the 60’s, 70’s, and 80’s, the Soviet Union’s space program shined like a jewel in the Kremlin’s crown. But then the country fell apart and its space program languished under the harsh economic reality of the “new Russia”.

The country that launched the first probes into deep space has not launched a deep space probe in over a decade. Its manned space program exists mainly thanks to its international partners and the commitments Russia has made to help build the International Space Station. Russia continues to fly its Soyuz spacecraft (a design that was first flown in the mid 1960s) but not without being supplemented by her international partners or paying passengers – including space tourists.

Against this rather bleak backdrop a ray of light has recently appeared pointing the way towards a much brighter future for the world’s oldest space program. This ray of light is called the “Concept of Russian Manned Space Navigation Development” (CRMSND). The CRMSND is a plan developed by the countries largest aerospace corporation SP Korolev Rocket And Space Corporation, Energia and presented to the enlarged “Scientific and Technical Board” for their consideration. The Scientific and Technical Board is a science think tank consisting of members of the Russian Space Agency Roskosmos, the Russian Academy of Sciences, leaders of industry, professors, and other intellectuals. Although their decision is not binding, the Scientific and Technical Board approved the plan on February 14, 2006 and submitted it to the government for review.

The CRMSND focuses on four major areas:

  1. Development of an economically efficient reusable space transportation system
  2. The industrialization of near Earth space
  3. Implementation of a manned lunar program leading to the eventual industrialization of the Moon
  4. Manned exploratory missions to the planet Mars

Soyuz Reborn

To accomplish these goals the CRMSND calls for making extensive use of the countries existing space infrastructure. Towards that end, Russia will begin the program by completely renovating its existing Soyuz spacecraft. The plan calls for the spacecraft to be completely gutted and then re-packaged with new modern components. In other words, the spacecraft will look the same but that’s where the similarity ends.

The Russians call this process “centralization”. Producing the old style systems requires the maintenance of old production lines and facilities. By switching to more modern components the old facilities can be shut down resulting in a cost savings. Centralization also allows the manufacturers to reduce the overall number of components used on the spacecraft by replacing old analog systems with modern digital systems. These systems are generally smaller and lighter than the components they are replacing resulting in a reduction in the overall mass of the spacecraft and allowing it to launch larger payloads. The rejuvenated Soyuz will not only be a more capable spacecraft but all of these factors should combine to reduce the overall cost of the spacecraft as well.

Concurrent with all this, the plan calls for the renovation of Russia’s ageing Control Ground Complex (CGC). The centralization concept will be applied to this as well with all of the old systems being replaced with cost efficient modern components. The result should be an overall reduction in operating expenses coupled with an increase in capabilities.

Currently, the primary mission of the Soyuz spacecraft is to serve as a space lifeboat for the International Space Station. This means that a Soyuz must be present at the station at all times so that if an emergency arises the crew can use it to escape. The current Soyuz TMA has an on-orbit lifespan of 6 months. This means that “Visiting Crews” need to be sent to ISS twice a year to replace the spacecraft. The new Soyuz will be able to stay on orbit for nearly a year (360 days). As a result the number of visiting crews can be reduced from two a year to only one resulting in additional cost savings.

But life for the new Soyuz does not stop at ISS. The increased payload capability allows the Russians the option of outfitting the spacecraft with increased amounts of thermal insulation, an upgraded heat shield, and increased consumables. This, in turn, converts the Soyuz into a Moon ship allowing it to conduct lunar missions as part of the third phase of the CRMSND. For this reason the Russians refer to this new Soyuz as the “Universal” Soyuz and the plan calls for its debut in 2010.

But simply beefing up the Soyuz does not create the “reusable economically efficient space transportation system” called for in phase one of the CRMSND. That is why the “Universal Soyuz” is considered to be only the first part of phase one. The second part calls for using the Universal Soyuz as an orbiting test bed for new ultra-modern systems that will be used on the next generation of Russian manned spacecraft known as Clipper.

Affordable Access To Space

Since the early 1970’s Russian engineers have been looking to replace the existing Soyuz spacecraft with a larger and more capable design similar to the US Space Shuttle. The first serious attempt to do this came in the 1980’s with the creation of the Buran Space Shuttle but the huge costs associated with operating and maintaining the spacecraft coupled with the declining economic situation resulted in the programs cancellation after only one mission. In the 1990’s Energia began designing a new spacecraft that was smaller and easier to operate than Buran and this, in turn, evolved into Clipper.

Similar to the US Constellation concept, Clipper is intended to evolve existing technologies into a new modular spacecraft that can fly a variety of missions yet still function within the countries existing space infrastructure. Originally an iron shaped lifting body design similar to but smaller than that of the US Space Shuttle, Clipper has evolved into a winged space plane with an aerodynamically active fuselage intended to increase maneuverability and reduce G-loads on the passengers. It has four major components: the Reentry Vehicle (RV), the Cabin Module (CM), the Service Habitation Module (SHM), and the Emergency Recovery System (ERS).

Like the Space Shuttle and Buran before it, the Reentry Vehicle is a glider which drops from orbit and glides to a landing on a conventional runway. During reentry, the RV is protected by special thermal blankets and tiles similar to those used on the Space Shuttle and Buran. It is basically just an airframe with a hollow core designed to accommodate the cylindrical Cabin Module which is inserted from the rear. The CM is the pressurized portion of the spacecraft and has seating for 6 in three rows of two seats each. In addition to the passengers, the CM also carries all of the spacecraft’s avionics and life support systems.

The third component in the system is the Service Habitation Module. The SHM actually consists of two parts. The first is the Habitation Module – a modified Soyuz orbital module which is docked to the back of the Cabin Module and has a traditional docking collar on the other end. This module is fully pressurized serving as both a docking adapter and storage area. The second part is a doughnut shaped collar that surrounds the Habitation Module – this is called the Service Module. The Service Module contains the spacecraft’s propulsion and maneuvering system and is used primarily to maneuver the spacecraft while it is outside of the Earth’s atmosphere.

Finally, there is the Emergency Recovery System. The ERS is an escape rocket that will be used to save the spacecraft and its crew during a launch abort. Originally, Clipper was to be outfitted with an escape rocket very similar to that currently used on Soyuz. In the event of an emergency the spacecraft would be pulled away from its booster and then allowed to glide back to Earth. But in an effort to reduce the overall weight of the spacecraft as well as reduce the aerodynamic flow around it’s nose, it was decided to use a new kind of escape rocket mounted around the base of the spacecraft. In the event of an emergency, the spacecraft would be pushed instead of pulled free of its booster and then allowed to glide back to Earth.

In this configuration a typical Clipper mission would begin with launch aboard a Soyuz 2 or 3 class booster. These are evolved versions of Russia’s existing Soyuz booster. Upon reaching orbit the spacecraft will use its propulsion system to perform a two day approach to ISS. When it arrives at ISS the spacecraft will orient itself so that the SHM is facing the station. The spacecraft will then proceed to dock with the Russian segment of the station using the Habitation Module. Clipper can remain there for up to 360 days replacing the Soyuz as the stations space life boat.

At the conclusion of the mission, Clipper will undock and pull away from the complex. It will then use the Service Module to fire a breaking impulse that will cause the spacecraft to begin its descent back to Earth. The SHM is then jettisoned and allowed to burn-up. Clipper, protected by its tiles and thermo blankets, continues its descent eventually landing at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan on the same runway that was built for the Buran Space Shuttle.

Clipper is intended to complete phase one by becoming the first economically efficient industrial style, space transportation system – just like those used currently for air and sea travel.. Energia projections show that Clipper should reduce the overall cost of manned spaceflight by a factor of three when compared to the present Soyuz spacecraft. This cost efficiency is intended to widen the market for manned spacecraft their-by increasing revenues to the point where the system should be able to pay for itself.

Energia sees three target markets for Clipper. The core market consists of launch services to the Russian government. Beyond that lies a secondary market consisting of foreign governments seeking to launch cosmonauts but unwilling or unable to create their own manned spacecraft. The Russian’s refer to these first two markets as the “professional market”. The third target is called the “amateur” market. This market consists of non-professional cosmonauts from universities and private enterprise who are seeking to fly payloads or cosmonauts to the International Space Station. This area also includes the “space tourists” who purchase a seat on Clipper as an exotic vacation option. The plan calls for flying two professionals on each flight leaving four seats available for sale

Current plans call for developing a fleet of five Clipper spacecraft each with a life span of 60 missions or 15 years. The expected cost will be around 1.5 billion USD. Clipper is expected to conduct its first un-manned test flight in 2013 followed by a manned mission in 2014 and operational capability by 2016.

Clipper Statistics
Launching Mass of Spacecraft 12,500 – 14,000 kg
Crew Size Up To 6
Mass Of Cargo 500 kg Up 500 kg Down
Duration Of Independent Flight Without SHM 5 Days
Nominal G-Load During Landing 2.5
Range Of Lateral Maneuverability 1,200 km
Landing Method Glider (runway landing)
Number Of Flights Per Spacecraft 60
Spacecraft Lifespan 15 years

Expanding The International Space Station

Phase 2 pf the CRMSND calls for the industrialization of low Earth orbit. The Russians are centering this portion of the plan around the completion and utilization of the Russian segment of ISS. The Russians intend to use ISS to perform the following functions:

Towards this end the Russians have developed a long term science program centered around these goals. Currently this plan calls for 70 biomedical studies, 32 Earth resource studies, 10 Solar System studies, 47 biotechnological studies, 53 technical studies, 36 astronomy studies, 14 investigations into space power systems, 8 studies of cosmic rays, 19 technology and material science studies, and 36 geophysical studies. In all there are 331 studies in 11 different fields. To accomplish this task the Russians intend to add 267 pieces of scientific equipment to their segment with a combined mass of over 7.5 tones. Outside the station they plan to install an additional 153 pieces of scientific equipment with an additional mass of 9.5 tones.

With all of this new equipment the Russians are going to require more room than they currently have. To alleviate this situation the CRMSND calls for the creation of several new modules. The first of these will be the Multi-functional Laboratory Module (MLM). Currently scheduled for launch in 2009 the MLM will become the centerpiece of the Russian segment. It is intended to become a multi functional scientific laboratory centered on technology and “replaceable” payloads belonging to the Russian space research program as well as paying foreign customers. These “replaceable” payloads are brought to ISS and then returned to Earth or destroyed at the conclusion of their program.

Once launched aboard a Proton booster, the MLM will be docked to Zarya’s nadir port. Once it has been checked out and outfitted with equipment, a multiple docking port, similar to those used on Mir and Zvezda, will be added to the MLM creating 5 operational ports. On either side of this port, the Russian’s plan to eventually attach two additional research modules called IM-1 and IM-2. On the end of these modules will be the NEP-1 and NEP-2 Scientific Power Platforms which power the labs and provide a platform upon which the Russians can experiment with space power systems. Of the remaining three ports, one of them will become the primary docking station for Clipper and another will become the home for what is perhaps the most unique piece of Russia’s ISS hardware – the Parom Space Tug.

The Parom Space Tug

It is well known that the current re-supply system using Progress class space freighters is outdated and in need of replacement. They simply can not carry enough cargo to service a rapidly expanding international space port. To alleviate this problem the CRMSND calls for the development of new giant cargo containers. These containers would come in a variety of sizes and would be capable of delivering from 4 to 13 tons of cargo at a time (compare this to the 2 ton capability of the Progress). The container is pressurized but it contains only a minimal amount of equipment basically limited to stabilizers and a passive docking unit. The largest of these would be about the size of the Zarya Functional Cargo Block currently attached to ISS.

When you add the weight of the spacecraft to the amount of cargo it is expected to deliver you run into a problem – no existing Russian booster can loft payloads that heavy directly to ISS. The traditional response to this problem would be the development of a new heavy lift booster but this creates both timing and financial issues that are just as bad as the logistical issues the new booster would be meant to solve. Parom is intended to circumvent this problem.

In Russian, the word Parom means ferry and that’s exactly what this spacecraft does. Parom is a multifunctional, reusable, interorbital tug intended to ferry spacecraft from one orbit to another. Once again making use of the upgraded systems developed for the Universal Soyuz, the Russians intend to produce a small cylindrical spacecraft that is basically an independent Soyuz service module complete with its own propulsion system and a tank for the long term storage of propellant. It is powered by two solar arrays mounted port and starboard and has a docking collar forward and aft. The spacecraft will be permanently stationed at ISS.

The plan is to launch the new cargo blocks into very low “parking” orbits. Because there is no need for costly and heavy upper stages, even the largest of these payloads can be launched using Russia’s existing Proton booster. Once the cargo was safely in orbit, Parom would be dispatched to rendezvous and dock with the Cargo Block using its forward docking collar. It then uses its own propulsion system and guidance equipment to tow the cargo to ISS where it will again dock only this time using its aft docking collar. Cosmonauts would then remove the aft docking collar and open the hatch. A short pressurized tunnel leads through Parom to the Cargo Block. The second docking collar is then removed and the hatch is opened allowing the cosmonauts access to the cargo.

Fuel is transferred from the un-pressurized portion of the cargo block using a series of pipes that run through Parom and into ISS. This is similar to the current system used to transfer fuel from Progress space freighters. A portion of the fuel being transferred to ISS will be diverted to re-fuel Parom. Once the cargo is unloaded, the Cargo Block is re-loaded with trash and sealed. Parom then undocks from ISS, delivers the Cargo Block to a low orbit, and then undocks. The Cargo Block is then allowed to reenter the Earth’s atmosphere while Parom proceeds to pick-up the next Cargo Block and deliver it to ISS where the entire process starts over again.

In addition to large cargo blocks, Parom can be used to transport massive un-pressurized science platforms which could be attached to ISS and later removed and replaced with new ones. There are also plans to use Parom to deliver the IM-1 and IM-2 science modules to the station. But perhaps the most unique use of the space tug is the one for which it was originally developed – towing Clipper from low Earth orbit to the ISS.

Using Parom to snatch Clipper from low Earth orbit and tow it to ISS eliminates the need for Clipper’s Service Habitation Module. The ERS becomes the space plane’s orbital maneuvering system and Parom becomes the docking adapter. This not only reduces the overall weight of the vehicle (increasing cargo capacity in the process) but it also reduces its overall cost by eliminating Clipper’s only disposable component.

In this configuration, Clipper missions will still begin with a launch aboard a Soyuz 2 or 3 class launcher. Once free of the booster, Clipper’s ERS would be used to nudge the spacecraft into a low Earth orbit. Parom, having been dispatched earlier, rendezvous with Clipper, docks, and then tows Clipper to ISS where the combined spacecraft attaches itself to the Russian segment. Upon completion of its mission Parom will undock and drop into a low Earth orbit. It will then separate from Clipper and proceed to pick-up its next Cargo Block. Clipper then uses its ERS to fire a breaking impulse causing the spacecraft to de-orbit and glide to a landing on the Buran landing strip. Parom’s first flight is scheduled for 2009.

Parom Statistics
Launch Mass 12,500 kg (5,990 dry)
Length 6,550 mm
Maximum Diameter 3,200 mm
Pressurized Volume 26 m3
Duration Of Free Flight 180 Days
Mission Life 15 Years
Maximum Number of Transfer Cycles 60

To The Moon

In the third phase, the CRMSND calls for exploration of the Moon with the eventual aim of industrialization. The proposed Moon program would have 5 goals:

The Russians plan to take an evolutionary approach to their lunar program making extensive use of both existing infrastructure and international cooperation.

In the first phase of the program the Russians envision using the Universal Soyuz to perform short circumlunar missions. The plan calls for launching a Universal Soyuz with a crew of three to ISS. There the spacecraft would be outfitted for the voyage and the crew would perform last minute training and adaptation to micro-gravity. A Proton booster would then be launched with a DM Block upper stage and a habitation module. Once this has occurred, the crew will enter the Soyuz and transfer from ISS to the Moon ship. Upon docking, the crew performs a thorough inspection of all systems. Once satisfied that all is ready, they will fire the DM Block’s engine and begin their journey to the Moon. Once underway, the crew will spend most of their time inside the habitation module.

The DM’s primary function is to propel the spacecraft out of the Earth’s gravity well – once this has occurred, no further propulsion will be necessary. As the spacecraft approaches the Moon it will begin to accelerate down the Moon’s gravity well. Ground controllers will then carefully aim the spacecraft so that the Moon will act like a giant cosmic sling shot first pulling the spacecraft down towards it and then flinging it around the dark side and back off towards the Earth. The resulting acceleration will be enough to send the spacecraft out of the Moon’s gravity well and back into the Earth’s. As it falls down the Earth’s gravity well, the Moon ship will once again begin to accelerate eventually reaching speeds in excess of 25,000 MPH. Just before hitting the atmosphere the crew will enter the Soyuz descent module, separate from the rest of the spacecraft, and reenter. Landing will occur at one of the usual Soyuz landing sites although splashing down into one of the oceans has not been ruled out. The first of these flights could occur as early as 2011 or 2012.

The next step would be to attempt to orbit the Moon. Building on their circumlunar concept the plan calls for using a Proton booster to launch a DM upper stage along with a habitation module into orbit. But to orbit the Moon the spacecraft will need something to slow it down as it approaches so that it can be captured by the Moon instead of flung around it. To accomplish this the plan calls for launching a second Proton to deliver a second DM to the complex. This will be docked to the DM/habitation complex already in orbit and will act as a breaking rocket once the spacecraft reaches the Moon.

Now the spacecraft can achieve lunar orbit but how do we get it home? Continuing to make use of existing hardware whenever possible, the plan calls for using a Soyuz class booster to launch a Fregat upper stage which will also be docked to the complex. Fregat is currently used as a third stage for Russia’s Soyuz class booster rocket. Traditionally Fregat is used to boost spacecraft into geostationary orbits or interplanetary trajectories. Here it will be used to propel the Moon ship out of lunar orbit and back to Earth at the end of its mission. Finally, a second Soyuz launcher is used to launch a Universal Soyuz with a crew of three to the complex.

The flight would proceed as follows: As with the circumlunar mission, the first DM fires to send the complex out of the Earth’s gravity well. The spacecraft will then fall into the Moon’s gravity well. As in the previous scenario, the spacecraft will begin to accelerate as it falls towards the Moon only this time as the spacecraft passes behind the Moon, the second DM fires to slow the spacecraft so that it can be captured in a circular lunar orbit. Once the cosmonauts have completed their mission, the Fregat fires to accelerate the spacecraft so that it can escape the Moon’s gravity well and become captured by the Earth’s. The rest of the flight will be just like the circumlunar mission with the crew returning via the Soyuz descent capsule in the usual manor. This mission could be completed as early as 2013.

Finally we have the manned lunar landing. Continuing to evolve their lunar capabilities the Russian’s will begin by constructing their basic lunar delivery system using two Protons to launch and dock two DM Block upper stages in Earth orbit. They will then use a third Proton to launch a small lunar lander which will autonomously dock with the complex. The two DM’s will then be used to send the lunar lander to the Moon and place it into a circular lunar orbit.

Once the lander is safely in lunar orbit, the plan calls for the construction of a lunar orbiter complex which will be used to send a Universal Soyuz with a crew of three to the Moon. Once in lunar orbit, the Soyuz will rendezvous and dock with the lander and two cosmonauts will transfer over, undock, and descend to the lunar surface. After completing the mission the two cosmonauts will launch themselves into lunar orbit using the ascent stage of the lander. They will then rendezvous with the Soyuz and the Fregat will fire to send them home. Before the Russians attempt a landing it is anticipated that they will conduct at least one un-manned practice landing as early as 2014 with a manned mission the following year.

The Russians realize that this “multiple launch” concept is cumbersome to say the least – seven launches to land two men on the Moon? But this is a temporary situation which the Russians intend to address during the second phase of their Moon program which calls for the construction of a permanent and reusable Earth-Moon-Earth transportation system. At the core of this plan are four vehicles: a Moon Orbiting Station, two types of Reusable Interorbital Tugs, and the “Reusable Interorbital Manned Spacecraft”.

The Moon Orbiting Station (MOS) will be based on the Zvezda Service and Habitation module currently attached to ISS. It will have a single docking port mounted aft and a multiple docking adapter mounted forward. Several laboratory and storage modules will be attached to this port giving the station an appearance very similar to that of Mir. A Moon Ascent/Descent Module (MADM) will also be permanently stationed at the complex. MADM will be a single stage reusable lander designed to ferry multiple crews to and from the lunar surface. The Russian’s intend the MOS to become a lunar space port from which the exploration and eventual industrialization of the lunar surface can be conducted.

But having a space station in lunar orbit doesn’t do anybody any good unless you can get a crew to it. So the next step will be for the Russians to evolve the Clipper/Parom Earth to orbit transportation system into an Earth-Moon-Earth transportation system.

The plan begins with the creation of something called a Reusable Interorbital Tug (RIT). RIT is an evolved version of the Parom space tug. It is actually two spacecraft designed to accomplish similar but very different tasks. These are known as the cargo RIT and the manned RIT.

The cargo RIT is intended to transport large Cargo Blocks (similar to those used to transport cargo to ISS) to the Moon. Because it is intended to transport only cargo, this version of the RIT comes equipped with a super fuel efficient Ion engine. A typical journey to the Moon using this system will take about two months due to the slow acceleration provided by its ion engines. The efficiency gained by using the ion engine more than makes up for the extra transit time. Once the Cargo Block arrives at the MOS it will be emptied and re-filled with lunar samples and other cargo. The cargo RIT will then transport the Cargo Block back to ISS where it will be emptied and reused. The current plan calls for towing up to 13 tons of cargo at a time using the RIT.

Creating a Reusable Interorbital Manned Spacecraft (RIMS) would be the next step. RIMS would be a modified Clipper crew module launched into Earth orbit using a Proton booster and docked to ISS. A crew of six would then board the vehicle and a manned RIT would be dispatched to collect it. The manned RIT differs significantly from the cargo RIT in that it uses a more traditional chemical rocket engine. This will shorten the transport time from a couple of months to a few days making the voyage a lot less stressful for the crew. The manned RIT docks with RIMS and tows it to the MOS. Once there, the six person crew would disembark and six more would take their place for the return trip. The manned RIT then tows the spacecraft back to ISS where it docks. The returning cosmonauts will then disembark and both RIMS and RIT will be refueled and prepared for their next mission. Thus RIMS becomes a permanent Earth Moon Earth transportation system allowing for economical and safe transportation between the Earth and the Moon. The final phase of the Moon program calls for the creation of a permanent manned lunar base, mining and manufacturing operations, and large astronomical facilities on the Moons surface. This phase is slated to begin sometime after 2020.

And Finally To Mars

The fourth goal of the CRMSND is to initiate manned expeditions to the planet Mars. The CRMSND does not go into much detail as to how this would be accomplished however, it does indicate that the Mars ship will be evolved out of the lunar exploration program. The program consists of three phases:

  1. Develop and test a “Martian Mission Complex” (MMC)
  2. Begin manned orbital missions to Mars
  3. Manned landings on the planet Mars

The MMC is a re-useable spacecraft similar to RIMS but carrying its own propulsion system. It consists of an Interplanetary Orbiter, a Lander, a Rescue Spacecraft that can be used to return the crew to Earth in the event of an emergency, and an ion propulsion system supplemented by a Solar Tug. Like the MOS, the orbiter would be based on the Zvezda Service Module currently used on ISS. The spacecraft would have three pressurized modules. The first, and largest, of these would be called the habitation module. This is where the crew will live and work. In order to protect the crew from potentially deadly solar storms the spacecrafts propellant tanks would encircle the habitation module acting like a shield. The life support system will be partially closed meaning that some non-renewable consumables will need to be taken along for the crew but for the most part the everything will be recyclable. Attached to the front port will be two storage modules filled with supplies as well as the lander. The lander consists of three modules: a descent, a habitation, and an ascent module. The Solar Tug will consist of very large solar arrays held in place by girders similar in design to the Sofra, Rapana, or Krab trusses experimented with on the Mir space station. The arrays would not only power the spacecraft but they would act like a solar sail helping to propel the spacecraft to and from Mars.

During phase 1 the MMC would be sent on an un-manned circummartion mission. This is intended to demonstrate the flight worthiness of the spacecraft. The second phase would involve a manned mission to orbit Mars. During this mission the crew would examine the planets surface and perform an un-manned landing on the planet using the lander. This is mission intended to prove the lander’s flight worthiness and to act as a dress rehearsal for the third phase where people actually land on Mars and begin exploring the planet. The MMC is designed to carry a crew of four on a 2.5 year mission. These flights could commence as early as 2025.

Main features of the MMC
Initial Mass 480 tons
Mass of ADS 35 tons
Specific thrust of EPS 7000 êãf/(kg/f).
Electric power of solar arrays 15 MW
Crew size 4 persons
Total time of the flight to the Mars and back to the Earth 2.5 years
Time of landing crew operation (2 persons.) on the Mars surface 15-30 days

In Conclusion

Re-useable Space planes, Interplanetary cruisers, industrial facilities in low Earth orbit and on the Moon – it all sounds great but it should be remember that so far none of this has been formally adopted by the Russian government. The Russian space program continues to suffer from crippling budget shortfalls and this does not appear to be changing any time soon. But with that said the CRMSND does present the first solid plan for picking up the pieces of Russia’s shattered space program and giving it a renewed purpose and direction.

The ball is now in the hands of the Russian government which has to answer only one question – do we want a space program? If the answer is yes than they will need a concrete plan outlining specific goals and missions and this is what the CRMSND is offering. They will also need to fund the program – something that the Russian government has up to now been reluctant to do. For its part the Russian space program needs to justify its existence to the Russian people by producing tangible benefits in response to reasonable investment.

Space travel will only progress unless there is some force, be it economic, military, scientific, or some combination of these forces driving it forward. The CRMSND lays the foundation upon which just such forces can array themselves. Will the Russian government opt to lead the world into the solar system the way they lead the world into Earth orbit? Only time will tell.

Linked from 21/12/2006 Journal